从文化角度看习语翻译

从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译

【摘 要】习语是语言文化的结晶,缺少了习语,语言将会变得索然无味。习语在语言中的应用比比皆是,在写作或演说中适当地使用习语将会使篇章增色,加强语言的力量使语言更形象。奈达曾说过,习语是比任何非习语更具冲击力的表达,它带有一种语言和文化的识别特征。习语被广泛应用于各类写作和演说中,如在文学作品中,在科学着作中,在政治演说中,甚至在美国,习语都成为辩论中唇枪舌战的武器。美国第16届总统亚伯拉罕·林肯在他一篇着名演说中引用了圣经里的一句话:“互相分裂的房子无法站立。”来号召美国人民团结一致反对黑奴制度,停止内战。美国人对圣经的内容都很熟悉,他们为此深受感动。林肯废奴运动也取得了很好的结果。既然习语在语言运用中有如此重要地位,那么恰到好处地翻译习语将有助于跨文化交流。中英不同的文化使得英汉习语在表达上有很大差异,也使得翻译中容易产生误译,因此加强对英汉习语文化内涵差异的了解有着重要意义。本文在探讨英汉习语文化内涵差异的基础上提出了四种翻译方法:直译法、意译法、意象转移法、增删法。

【关键词】 习语;文化;习语翻译

【Abstract】 Idioms, having universal appeal, are widely recognized as the essence or the crystallization of language. Without idioms language would become dull and dry, whereas an appropriate use of them in speech and writing will add much to variety strength and vividness of the language. Idioms usually carry more impact than none-idiomatic expressions because of their close identification with a particular language and culture. Idioms are widely used in almost all kinds of speeches and writings: they can be found in literary works, in scientific and political articles; even debates in the United Nations are often interspersed with idioms which become verbal weapons that are difficult to argue against. The 16th US President Abraham Lincoln once quoted an idiom derived from the Bible: “A house spanided against itself cannot stand.” in one of his famous speech, calling on people to fight against slavery and Civil War. American people, who were familiar with the Bible, were greatly impressed and Lincoln’s antislavery campaign at last yielded fruitful result. Thus idioms hold an important position in language use, an adequate translation of idioms is not only helpful but also essential in intercultural communication.

This paper attempts to make a brief comparative study of the cultures embodied in Chinese and English idioms and explores the role of the culture in understanding and rendering of both English and Chinese idioms.

【Key Words】 Idioms; culture; the translation of idioms

1. Introduction

Cultural studies have currently been prevailing in the west. And talking about cultural studies has also become a fashion in the circle of present Chinese culture and academia, especially in the field of literary theory and criticism. Accordingly, in the wide sphere of translation studies, there are some scholars both at home and abroad who have tried to replace translation with cultural translation studies and interpretation. Translation is considered to be a cross-cultural communication, which concerns not only the transfer between languages, but also the transfer between cultures. However, the ways of thinking, beliefs, attitudes and values of different cultures not only give rise to failures or misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication but also pose headaches to translation theorists and translators.

An idiom is a beautiful gem of a language as well as crystallization of national culture. Yet it is also one of the most difficult things to learn and use in a foreign language. They are often rather hard to understand from the meaning of inspanidual words. Chinese and English both abound with idioms, whose succinct forms and profound meanings make themselves more condensed and expressive. Many idioms bear figures and strong cultural flavors. If they are translated appropriately, not only can the original spirit and meanings be faithfully conveyed, clearly understood and accepted by the target language readers, but also the Chinese and English vocabularies can be enriched to provide a broader cultural vision. The issues of rendering idioms of one language into another are always complicated, if the two languages involved are so unlike in backgrounds and cultures with each other. This paper expounds the close relationship between idioms and culture translation, and the issue of idiom translation is explored from a cultural perspective.

2. Definitions and forms of idiom

2.1 The definitions of idiom

The word “idiom” possesses several meanings. It may be defined as “the language of a people or a country”, as in “the Chinese idiom”; or “a dialect” as in “Cantonese idiom”. It may also be defined, according to Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, as “phrase or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its inspanidual words and which must be learnt as a whole unit”[1] p734. The second definition most suits the purpose of this paper. The Chinese “equivalent” for“ idiom” is“习语”, it also refers to 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 a kind of a set phrase or sentence fixed by long usage. From the above definitions we can extract two basic criteria on which to decide whether or not an expression is an idiom(or:习语):

Firstly, established and refined by long practical use, an idiom has a relatively high degree of stability of the lexical components. An idiom allows little or no variation in form under normal circumstances. In general, any change in the components will result in absurdities or even render the idioms meaningless. A speaker or writer cannot normally do any of the following with an idiom unless he or she is consciously making a joke or attempting play on words:

a. Change the order of the words in it (e.g.* “at sevens and sixes” instead of “at sixes and sevens”);

b. Delete a word from it (e.g.* “a kettle of fish” instead of “a nice kettle of fish”);

c. Add a word to it (e.g.* “to show one’s white teeth” instead of “to show one’s teeth”);

d. Replace a word with another (even with a synonymous word) (e.g.* “the pear of one’s eye ” instead of “the apple of one’s eye”)

e. Change its grammatical structure (e.g.* “a king may be looked at by a cat” instead of “a cat may look at a king”).

Similarly in Chinese we can only say: “七零八落” not “八零七落;”“无的放矢”not “无的放箭”, although “矢”and “箭” both mean “arrow”. However, just as what has been mentioned above, sometimes, either for the sake of sarcasm or for the sense of humor or for the sake of style, we can create, as a makeshift, some irregular variants from the original idioms, but these irregular variants are transient, and may not be acknowledged by people as a whole:

(1) “to read more than one can chew” is from “to bite off more than one can chew”;

(2) “be dressed to the teeth” is from “to be armed to the teeth ”.

Similarly in Chinese:

(3) “一箭三雕”(to shoot three hawks with one arrow)is an irregular variant of the set phrase “一箭双雕”(to shoot two hawks with one arrow);

(4) “权令智昏”(to be blinded by lust for power) from“利令智昏” (to be blinded by lust for gain);

Sometimes for rhetorical effect, an idiom can be made brief with only the core element remained:

(5) The hotel was expensive, the food was poor and the bad weather was the last straw.

In this sentence, “the last straw” is adapted from the idiom “It is the last straw that breaks the camel’s back.”

(6) Make hay. The market is good now don’t miss the chance.

Here, “make hay” is abbreviated from the idiom “Make hay while the sun shines”. Such adaptation usually calls for the familiarity of the idiom by the reader to recognize the real meaning.

Secondly, an idiom often carries meanings, which cannot be deduced from their inspanidual components. More often than not, it cannot be interpreted only according to its literal meaning. Take the expression “to go Dutch (with someone)” for example: Instead of going to the Netherlands (Holland), it means to agree to share the cost of something (with someone), as in “Will you let me take you out to dinner tonight? “As long as we go Dutch”. Take another Chinese idiom for example: “胸有成竹”(literally means to have the bamboo in one’s mind, figuratively, to have ready plans or design in one’s mind. cf. to have a card up one’s sleeve). An idiom usually acquires an implied meaning, that is to say, most idioms are metaphorical in meaning. The meaning of an idiom is somewhat more than the sum meanings of its constituent words, in other words, idioms convey more meaning as a whole than the few words could carry separately. This can be fully illustrated by the following examples: when taken literary, the phrase“the man in the street” is not an idiom. In a figurative sense, “the man in the street” implies the average person, who represents general opinion. When someone says, “You cannot unscramble the scrambled egg”, he is not merely referring to the egg, and he is using a metaphor to tell another person not to worry about something that cannot be undone. “Cat’s paw” does not refer to the paw of a cat but a person who has been fooled or exploited. “Black sheep” is not a sheep which is black at all. And it means an evil member of a herd or a good-for-nothing person.

2.2 Forms of idioms

In a broad sense, idiomatic phrases cover all of the following forms: set phrases, proverbs, common sayings, colloquialisms, allusions and slangs. Here four important forms of idioms are selected for explanation.

2.2.1 Set phrases

One most important group of idioms are set phrases whose form is set and many of them are rather rigid and cannot show up 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 in any other forms. There is an inexhaustible storehouse of set phrases that play an important role in English language. I shall select one of them with cultural traces. For example, the origin of “to kick the bucket” can be traced back to a religious ceremony of baptism in Christianity. As far as a Christian is concerned, his/her important three stages, birth, marriage and death, are closely connected with a religious ceremony: baptism. A Christian needs to receive baptism from an administrator when he/she was born, get married in the church with blessings of a certain minister and be baptized again when he/she is going to die”. So the idiom “kick the bucket” is a euphemistic expression connoting “to die” referring to the death of a Christian in the ceremony of being baptized.

2.2.2 Allusions

Allusions of idioms are actually origins and national characteristics of idioms. On account of the different social background, customs and religious, some idioms are sure to have allusions to myth and legend, history and classic. Their meanings are much more remoted from their literal senses. Without knowledge of the allusions made in idioms we can hardly read between the lines and catch what they imply. To understand the idioms of this kind, knowledge of the etymology of idioms is indispensable. Only a small part of English idioms, it is said, draw on sources from the legend of Greece and Rome, most of them are of biblical origin [2] p97.

For example, “bone of the bone and flesh of the flesh”, a phrase of biblical origin, is now metaphorically used to refer to “blood relation” or “unity in thought”, but why and how? As to these questions, the readers have to refer to the Bible, an inspired as well as an inspiring book, which provides men and women with promises and punishments from God. It is cherished cultural heritage all through the history of the west but now its influence has spread to most of the civilized world, just as the spirit of Confucianism has penetrated into our Chinese spiritual life, the essence of Bible also influences how people in the west look at life.

2.2.3 Proverbs

Proverb is often defined as the wisdom of many and the wit of one, stating commonly experienced or for the purpose of giving wise advice to others. Proverbs are the wisdom of people, so it is common people who have created a great number of proverbs that are terse, colloquial, vivid and charged with life through their practical work. Their varied proverbs are from all walks of life. Here are some typical ones reflective of common people’s lives as follows [3] p286:

Sailors will say:

(7) “In a calm sea every man is a pilot.”(在平静的海洋上,人人都是领航员)

Carpenters will say:

(8) “Such carpenters, such chips.”(什么木匠出什么活)

Cobblers may say:

(9) “The cobbler’s wife is the worst shod”. (鞋匠的老婆没鞋穿)

2.2.4 Slangs

Slang expressions are dialectic, vulgar and colloquial language drawing numerous sources from the shoptalk of every profession: trade, sport, school, social group, etc. They draw on source from local people’s life experiences or their customs and are widely used in informal speech and writing such as drama, TV serials, movies, monologue in the novel but are rarely used in formal contexts.

3. Idioms, culture and translation

3.1 Idioms and culture

Idioms are usually highly specialized in meaning and closely tied to distinctive cultural features and cultural attitude. It is believed that idioms are the most culturally-loaded element in any language’s vocabulary. As the kernel and cream of a language, idioms are usually closely with the historical backgrounds, economic life, geographical environment, customs and mental states of the native speakers. As a matter of fact, idioms have been accepted by people and handed down to the present day because of their universal value. As such, they can be regarded as the sinew of the language. Without idioms, language would lack color and become uninteresting.

Let’s take proverb as an example. Proverbs are the daughters of daily experience. In nearly every culture, proverbs offer an important set of instructions for members to follow. And thanks to the endurance of these “words of wisdom”, each generation learns about what a culture deems significant.

Below are some proverbs from the United States, each of which stresses an important American value: a value held by the dominant culture.

(10) Strike while the iron is hot. In the United States, people who take quick action are valued.

(1

1) God helps those who help themselves. This saying calls attention to the strong belief 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 in America that people should show initiative.

(1

2) The squeaky wheel gets the grease. In the United States, people are encouraged to “speak up” and make sure their views are heard.

3.2 Culture and translation

Translation is the transfer of the meaning of a text which may be a word or a book from one language to another for a new readership. Since language is part of culture, translation of language cannot simply be the transfer of linguistic symbols. Over the recent 20-years, with the deepening of cultural studies, it has been commonly accepted that translation involves both language and culture. Translation deals not only with turning the content in one language into another, but also with turning the cultural connotation in one language into another cultural form. So, it is quite necessary for a translator to think about the cultural connotation every unit may embody when translating [4] p39. The film The First Blood is translated into“第一滴血”.However, the translation cannot reflect the cultural connotation behind the words. In fact, “the first blood” is an idiom full of cultural implication, referring to the first success in contest. It will be more reasonable if translated into “初战告捷” or “旗开得胜”.

A translator must be a real culturist. It’s said that a translator must grasp two languages; indeed, he must. But without understanding the social cultural connotation in one language no one can really master the language [5] p5. Even Nida E.A. once also pointed out that for a truly successful translator, it is more important for him to get familiar with two cultures than to master two languages, because a word will make sense only in the cultural background where it functions.

A translator should know foreign culture as well as the culture of his own people. Human beings have much in common. They live on the same globe. Experiences and observations of the world are in many respects similar. Cultures of various countries also have something in common. All these similarities and generalities are inevitably embodied in languages. That’s why equivalents or close approximates can be found in terms of linguistic form and meaning. For example, the English idiom “castles in the air” has its absolute equivalent of Chinese idiom“空中楼阁”.However, culture is important in giving a language its own characteristics, so the dissimilarities are naturally more apparent. In the process of translation, a translator is more often faced with cultural differences. Every country has its own ethnic groups, geographical location, religious beliefs, values, political systems and so on. All these form the differences of national culture, which are also certainly embodied in language. The influence of culture on language brings difficulties to translating. The lack of cultural awareness on the part of the translator is often the cause of errors or defects of cultural nature in translating.

As language is a tool for cultural dissemination and communication, translation is, of course, a bridge and an essential means of cultural understanding and exchange. Without translation, there was no cultural communication. Studies on the relationship of culture and translation will give an impetus to cultural communication, to the promotion of the prosperity of cultures in different countries and different nations, to the enrichment of the global culture and acceleration of the development of the world civilization. The purpose and characteristics of translation are to exchange ideas and culture. Therefore, translation is referred to as a cross-linguistic, cross-cultural and cross-social communication event.

As stated above, language is the carrier of culture and translation is a tool for cultural exchange. As an essential and more expressive component of languages and cultures concerned, a beautiful gem of a language as well as crystallization of national culture, a close study of them is inevitable in translation. The possibility of translation is due to the generality of cultures in different countries, while the limit of translation is based on their cultural differences. As we know, an idiom is a form of expression peculiar to a language. Every language has its own peculiarities in expression, alien from each other. The four-character structures dominate the Chinese idioms, while an English idiom is a combination of two or more words. Both Chinese and English idioms are usually structurally fixed and semantically opaque, i.e. metaphorical rather than literal and function as a single unit of meaning. Many idioms bear strong national cultural flavors, some of which are unique. Xiehouyu is a case in point. It is a special product of the Han culture. There is no equivalent expression in English. All these constitute special difficulties in translating them. Compared with other linguistic expressions, t 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译hey are both more difficult to understand and even more difficult to express. Yet, we have to keep their features in order to maintain faithfulness of the target language and culture to the source language and culture when translating. In view of their frequent appearance in literary works and even political and scientific essays, whether or not idioms are well translated will affect the quality of translation as a whole.

4. Understanding idioms from a cultural context

4.1 The original and national coloring

The origins of idioms are varied, but the chief sources are from the speech of the common people. Ordinary people, such as pilots, hunters, farmers, workers, housewives and cooks, create many idioms. Over a long period of time, these people have created a great number of idioms. Sailors have invented many lively sea-faring phrases, laborers in the fields have created expressions concerning farm-work, and workers of all kinds of occupations have created their own. Moreover, the fisherman talks of life in terms of fishing, the housewife helps herself out with metaphors from her kitchen or her farmyard, the sportsman expresses himself in the idioms of sports, and the hunter of his hunting, or his dogs and horse etc. These idioms are terse, colloquial, vivid and charged with life. And before long they acquire a wide application to analogous situations in everyday life. Little by little the most vivid and most useful of these idioms make their way from popular speech into the standard language, and finally come to be universally understood. Suffice it to give a few examples below:

(1

3) A straw shows which way the wind blows.

(1

4) As a man sows, so shall he reap?

(1

5) To call a spade a spade

Here, the words `straw, wind, sow, reap, spade' are obviously things and activities connected closely with the everyday life of farmers.

(1

6) To strike while the iron is hot.

(1

7) To cry over spilt milk.

The simple nature of these idioms and the simple words connected with daily life show that they are created by housewives and cooks.

As Britain is an island country, a lot of English idioms have to do with sailing and fishing:

(1

8) To clear the decks

(1

9) To know the ropes

(20) To go against the stream

(2

1) To be all at sea.

The words "decks", ropes", "stream" and "sea" make it clear that the idioms come from the pilots or seamen.

Traditionally, China has been a large farming country. A high percentage of its population are farmers. Therefore, plenty of Chinese idioms are related with agriculture. They are the outcome of the Chinese farmer’ work and have been handed from one generation to another. They reflect the diligent nature of the farmers:

(2

2)种瓜得瓜,种豆得豆:Plant melons and you get melons, sow beans and you get beans.

(2

3)对牛弹琴: To play the lute to a cow

The different plants and animals mentioned above show clearly that they were created by people doing agricultural work.

Farmers, workers, cooks and housewives first used all the idioms on certain occasions. As time went by, people found they were also useful in some other situations. Time tested them and they became the popular sayings used in similar situations. Take "Throw a long line to catch big fish". It was used to explain in the beginning the action of "catching fish" only. As time goes along, people find it can express a similar situation of "doing something with foresight", which connects the idiom's meaning closely to people's everyday life now. In this way, many idioms become set phrases in the language to express similar situations.

We know that Buddhism was once rather popular in China and is still followed by some people today. The Chinese people are very familiar with such words as“寺庙”temples,“和尚”monks and“菩萨”Buddha. That is why these terms are often found in Chinese idioms.

(2

4)跑了和尚跑不了庙:The monk may run away, but not his temple.

(2

5)做一天和尚撞一天钟:Go on tolling the bell as long as one is a monk.

Similarly, in western societies, people believe that there are such things as God, hell, paradise, devil, etc. And the English translation of the Bible has also influenced the 1anguage profoundly. Therefore, some idioms reflect their fear of hell and some have come from the Bible.

(2

6) Go to hell, damn you

(2

7) To wash one's hands (to say one is no longer responsible for something)

(2

8) To fight the good fight (the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak).

Furthermore, many idioms show the life experience of people from all walks of life. They play a very important role in educating young people and passing down social values and norms. Such idioms are numerous both in English and Chinese:

(2

9) Money makes the mare go.

(30) Man proposes; God disposes.

(3

1) Failure is the mother of success

(3

2) Birds of a feather flock together.

As is well known, both peoples created many idioms concerning the “heart”, which they regarded similarly as the center of their soul, thought and emotion. Thus:

(3

3) To lose heart: to lose courage, confidence, hope or to become dispirited and discouraged. (灰心丧气)

(3

4) Heart and soul: with one's deepest feelings and thoughts. ‘Heart’ refers to emotion, and ‘soul ’to mind or spirit. (全心全意;一心一意)

(3

5) 心有灵犀一点通: Hearts which beat in union are linked.

From the idioms mentioned above we can see that there is a surprising similarity in the origins of English and Chinese idioms. But on the other hand, owing to the different social background, customs and religions, differences are sure to appear in idioms in both languages, particularly in their national characteristics. The different opinions of the dog in English and Chinese are a good example. Though both have cultivated the habit of keeping dogs, the English people have a very high opinion of it, and the Chinese people often associate it with bad things.

(3

6) Love me, love my dog.

(3

7) Every dog has its day.

(3

8)狗仗人势:Like a dog threatening people on the strength of its master's power.

(3

9)狗嘴里吐不出象牙:A dog's mouth emits no ivory.

The above idioms show their origins and national coloring. As idioms come from the lives of ordinary people, they unavoidably carry cultural characteristics closely connected with a nation's history, economy, geography, religion, customs and mentality. These constitute the next characteristic of idioms, namely cultural loading.

4.2. The cultural loading

Culture, in this paper, does not mean one's ability to read and write. It means, as the authoritative anthropologist Edward B.Tytlor wrote: “Culture or civilization taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society(18

7

1)转引”[6] p14. People agree that culture has four basic characteristics:

1) It is learnt from society, not got from Heredity.

2) It is shared by all of a society, not just a few inspaniduals.

3) It has the feature of symbol, and language is the most important symbolic system.

4) It is an integrated unit and each of them is related to others.

In human history, the greatest impacts on national culture include the change of the earth's surface, the migration of the races, and the conquests, assimilations and wars between groups. To analyze the cultural peculiarities of idioms, it is necessary to briefly review the major events that influence the origination and development of the two languages.

5. Translation methods of idioms

Translation is different from common communications. It involves a lot of factors, such as linguistic, cultural, psychological and art, etc. Therefore, it doesn't exclude the general rules, especially to the translators. After they finished the relevant inference and decision and began to do the code transformation, certain translation rules will avoid them from being blind. The important thing for them to pay much attention is to use the rules flexibly according to relevance principle.

Techniques in translation vary, and we should use specific methods in treating specific problems, in another word, to find the optimal relevance. In the following sections, we shall discuss methods that can be used in dealing with specific idioms in translating from Chinese to English and vice versa, and try to analyze them in the light of relevance theory. Here are four main approaches.

5.1 The literal approach

The Chinese and English languages are very different in their form and ways of expression on the one hand, and are similar in many respects on the other. To preserve the national character and the special coloring in the original work, and also accelerate the cultural exchange of the two nations, the first approach in idiom translation is the literal approach. It is used under the condition that the wording does not violate the rule of the target language. Take the Chin 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译ese idiom “雨后春笋”for example, we can borrow the English idiom "like mushroom" but the literal approach can also be used (if proper in the context) to translate it as "like bamboo shoots after a spring shower". Another example is “猫哭老鼠”.Though we can borrow the English idiom "to shed crocodile tears", we can also, and with better results, translate it as "the cat weeps over the mouse's death". Here, we introduce the image of "bamboo" to the English people, who will easily understand it, since pandas are becoming popular in the world now, and their food "bamboo" should also be well known to the people in the world. And the animals "cat" and “mouse", are also well known worldwide. The only problem is that the English-speaking people do not have exactly the same idiom. If we translate them in the literal way, we will not only translate the idiom's meaning but also introduce something interesting to the English people and help the two people understand each other.

As a matter of fact, the exchange of foreign expressions between nations has never stopped. The translation of literary works since the May 4th movement, has introduced many new and modern words and ideas along with the foreign original works to the Chinese language [7] p4. And we now use many idioms originally coming from foreign languages, especially western languages like English.

Hundreds of English idioms come from The Bible, which were not born in the native language, but have come from Hebrew and Greek. The English people do not feel uncomfortable in using them, but feel proud that they possess the vivid and rich language in the world. The Chinese idiom“丢脸”(lose face) has not only become a set phrase in English, but also been literally translated into many other languages in the world. For years the idiom“纸老虎”is very popular after it was translated as "paper tiger". Modern Chinese, too, has absorbed many foreign idioms, such as "sour grape", translated as“酸葡萄”.And the two English idioms“ like the apple of the eye” and “eye for eye, tooth for tooth”, have been literally translated as“像眼珠子一样” and“以眼还眼,以牙还牙”.

5.2 Literal translation plus annotation

(40)The Chinese idiom of allusion“塞翁失马,焉知非福”is when the old man at the frontier lost his horse, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise.

English-speaking readers get the idea that a man lost his horse, but they will be in the dark about why it will be a blessing in disguise. Who bless whom and who try to disguise? With so many questions in the readers' minds, the translation cannot convey adequate information to fulfill the communication. That is to say, the intended meaning of the speaker does not meet the readers' expectation according to the relevance theory, and the contextual effects cannot be yielded at minimal processing cost. In other words, the audience of the target language will have to make a lot of processing effort to understand the meaning of the SL. At this time, the crucial point is that the communicator, according to relevance theory, should try to produce a stimulus-verbal or other wise-form which the audience can infer what set of thought or assumptions the communicator intended to convey. And, since idioms with allusions often have a historical story behind them, an annotation should be added to meet the intended meaning of the speaker:

Annotation: this is an allusion to a story popular for more than 2,000 years in China. When an old man lost his horse, his neighbors consoled him. "This may be a good thing," he said. The horse came back with another horse, and the old man's neighbors congratulated him. "This may prove unlucky," he said. When his son, who liked the new horse, rode it and broke his leg, once more the neighbors came to express their sympathy. "This may turn out for the best," said the old man. And, in deed, just then the Huns invaded the country and most able-bodied men were conscripted and killed in battle; but thanks to his 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译broken leg the old man's son survived [8] p407.

The annotation is a very interesting story, which solves the readers' problem of understanding, supplies adequate information and adds to the beauty of the idiom. Let's cite another two examples to illustrate this point of view:

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1) “三请诸葛”-ask you three times, like Zhuge Liang.

Annotation: Zhuge liang was a hero of the Three Kingdoms Period. He had to be asked three times before he would grant an interview to Liu Pei, whom he afterwards served, and helped to become emperor. [6] p 351

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2) That's something for Ripley 那简直是里普利的奇闻

Annotation: A number of American newspapers carry a feature titled "Believe it or not," by Ripley. It presents strange or unusual facts or happenings that are all supposed to be true and can be verified, but because they are so odd, so out of the ordinary, people find them hard to believe. The expression is generally used when referring to something that seems incredible but is probably true.

Obviously, the original meaning of the idioms above can not be understood without the annotations, not to mention the preservation of the original cultural loading and introducing it to the foreign readers. Take idiom (三请诸葛) as an example. The questions of "Who is Zhuge Liang?" and "For what reason to ask somebody three times?" will obviously dwell on the audience's mind. To explain the questions in the point of view of relevance theory, we can see clearly that the audience of the TL has not enough shared knowledge or shared cognitive environment with the SL. So the audience can't infer from what offered to them to yield the contextual effect and the intention the communicator wants to convey cannot be shared with the TL audience. That is to say, only with the annotation, can there be the resonance between SL and TL.

However, it must be noted that this method should be used only when something new is to be introduced to foreign readers. In speech, the interpreters or people conversing with English-speaking visitors should give a rough equivalent or a brief explanation without going into details, so as not to distract them from the main thread of the idea being discussed. And for the idioms with allusion which are not so strange to the foreign readers, or those that can be understood in the context, in other words, the audience has enough shared knowledge with the speaker, translators should be careful not to waste so much space in explaining them in detail so as not to reduce readers interest in the whole work.

5.3 Image-shift translation [9] p117

Because of the influence of different cultures and customs, each nation has its own way of expressing the same concept. So in translating, a translator should change ways of expression to conform to the habits of the target language. For example, Chinese idiom“一箭双雕”or “一举两得”in French refers to "to hit two places with one stone", in English "to kill two birds with one stone", and in Russian it becomes "to kill two rabbits with one bullet", while in Germany, it refers to "to kill two flies with an beat". And among various languages, cultural differences are reflected by people's recognition of the objective world. The objective thing contains different values in different languages, which arouse different associations and contain different connotations. Animal words are a case in point.

As we know, many languages contain quite a number of idioms with animal words. Some animals stand for similar images in both languages, such as the fox. Both cultures think the fox stands for cunning and slyness. Some animals stand for very different images such as the dog and the dragon. In English, the dog stands for friendship while in Chinese it stands for faithfulness [10] p146. To Chinese, the dragon is something sacred and showing majesty, and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation--- that's why the Chinese call themselves龙的传人(descendants of the dragon) and Chinese feudal emperors were often referred to as真龙天子.Thus appear idioms such as望子成龙(hope one's son will turn out a dragon---expect one's son to be talent or become somebody), 龙凤呈祥(the dragon and the phoenix bringing prosperity--- excellent good fortune),生龙活虎 (doughty as a dragon and lively as a tiger---be full of vim and vigor).However, in the mind of the English-speaking people, the dragon is some evil monster that can spit fire, and sometimes possesses three to nine hands.[11] p 99 Some are of very subtle difference, such as the pig, e.g. "as fat as a pig" and“胖得象头猪”. Certain characters are represented by different animals in two languages. For example, the horse in English often plays the role of the ox in Chinese such as "as strong as a horse" and壮“得像头牛”,and the lion in English often assumes the image of 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 the tiger in Chinese such as "lion in the way " and“拦路虎”.So it is necessary to make appropriate transference. In fact, this is one way of "cultural transference".

Here are some examples of translation containing different images of animals in Chinese and English idioms:

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3) 狐假虎威donkey in a lion's hide

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4) 牛饮: to drink like a fish

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5) 蠢得像头猪: as stupid as a goose

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6) 老虎屁股摸不得.One should not twist the lion’s tail.

5.4 The approach of addition and omission

Complex idioms should be treated in flexible ways. Since the range of inferences one can make from any phenomenon is huge and open-ended, there needs to be some constraint that helps the audience to identify those assumptions which the communicator intended to communicate. Because of the different natures of the Chinese and the English languages, that is, the former is implicate and the latter explicate, different approaches of translation should be used. Owing to the implicated nature of the Chinese language, and in order to keep its national flavoring, words or phrases should sometimes be added. That's why the approach of addition exists. It is not a matter of "something out of nothing". Instead, it helps the foreign readers to have a better comprehension of the original work. For example:

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7) 借香献佛borrowing joss-sticks from a neighbor and burning them before Buddha for your own sake. This translation has added the phrases "from a neighbor" and "for your own sake" to give the readers a complete idea of the speaker. Because of the terse nature of Chinese idioms, they often contain some deep meanings, which are not shown on the surface. But the whole ideas will not be complete if not expressed in the translation. In above translation, if the two phrases are not added, the readers will not understand why one "borrow joss-sticks" and why he "burns them before Buddha". And here, neither literal translation nor free translation is proper, for the former one---“To borrow joss-sticks and offer them to Buddha” cannot express the complete implicated meaning, and the latter---“to make presents provided by somebody else will lose the vivid image of the original.

On the other hand, because of the special nature of Chinese idioms, some of them often combine two idioms of the same meaning for better sound and form. As we know, repetition is one of the characteristics of the Chinese language. But in translating them into English, translators will feel it difficult to do the same, because English speakers do not often say things like this. They do not have the habit of repeating things. So in translating them, omission should be chosen to avoid unnecessary and tedious repetition. Look at the following,

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8) 取之不尽,用之不竭--inexhaustible

The idiom is quite nice in the eyes of Chinese speakers, for it is balanced, which conforms to the Chinese culture and the feeling of the Chinese people. But to English readers, who are used to being brief, a feeling of being wordy and strange will be unavoidably caused if they are translated as the Chinese words. Then the better way for a skillful translator to choose now is omission, which is to be translated as "inexhaustible" or "abundant". Here are few more examples:

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9) 沉鱼落雁之容,闭月羞花之貌 one's beauty would put the flowers to shame.

(50) 乐极生悲,否极泰来--extreme pleasure is followed by sorrow.

6. Conclusion

Idioms constitute the kernel and cream of a language. Chinese and English have developed the abundant and variety of idioms, which make themselves more vivid, more succinct and more expressive. They mainly come from the laboring people, from ancient languages or foreign languages, in which literature, history, religion and sports etc, have given rise to many such wonderful phrases and sentences concerned. With complexity in culture, idioms take many different forms or structures, and constitute obstacles to their translation. Therefore how to solve the cultural factors in idioms is a touchstone of successful rendering of idioms.

Culture is reflected in image, emotion, structure and logic of idioms. But culture is not an insurmountable obstacle. A translator needs to avoid possible cross-cultural misunderstanding and meanwhile make efforts to introduce the source language culture to the target readers, as people from any culture background are capable of understanding a foreign culture provided that it is properly represented.

In this paper several methods of idioms translation have been proposed. There are surely some more methods to be adopted. But which method to employ will completely depend on a situation or context and the importance of culture elements concerned. Even th 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译 从文化角度看习语翻译e same idiom may be translated in various ways in different contexts. As a result of complexity in English and Chinese idioms, it is better to integrate principle with flexibility in translating their images. We should always keep in mind that methods of translation are to serve the purpose of fully carrying out the principles of faithfulness and expressiveness.

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[8] 喻家楼. 汉语成语英译词典[Z]. 合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社, 1998. p407

[9] 黄碧蓉. 英汉习语的异化和归化[J]. 湘潭师范学院学报, 2004,7. p117 [11] 陈守珍. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms[J]. 西南农业大学学报, 2004,6. p99