[Abstract] Body language is an important part of nonverbal communication and it is connected with culture. In order to make successful exchange in cross-cultural communication, we should know the body language from different cultures. And we should realize that body language, like verbal communication and culture, also has many similarities all over the world. However , body language from different cultures has many differences because of different regions, races and cultural customs. And it is restricted by its culture and has different cultural connotations. That is to say, the same body language has different meanings in different cultures and has different social functions. This article devotes to a comparison and contrast of body language in different cultures in terms of eye language, gestures, postures, facial expressions and touch. It aims to illustrate the differences and similarities of body language and put forward the principles of reducing barriers in communication so as to achieve efficient communication and to avoid misunderstanding.
[Key Words] Nonverbal Communication; Body Language; Cultural Differences and Similarities; Principles
【摘 要】身势语是非语言交际的重要组成部分并和文化紧密联系在一起。为了在跨文化交际中能够成功地进行交流，我们应该了解不同文化的身势语，必须承认世界各国的身势语与语言和文化一样，也有相似之处。然而，由于地域，种族，文化习俗的差异，不同文化的身势语有许多差异。它们由文化制约并拥有独特的文化内涵。也就是说，同样的身势语在不同文化背景下有不同的含义，行使着不同的 社会 功能。本文致力于从目光语，手势语，身体姿态，面部表情，体触语方面对不同文化的身势语进行对比。目的在于通过列举身势语的文化差异与共性，并提出交际中遵循的原则，从而促进有效交流，避免误解。
【关键词】 非语言交际；身势语；文化异同；原则
1. Introduction
People can communicate with each other through not only verbal communication but also nonverbal communication. Moreover, the latter plays an essential role in human communication. Nonverbal communication is connected with cultures and it is the result of cultures. But many people pay great attention to the acceptance and correctness of the verbal communication and overlook the influence and cultural difference of nonverbal communication. The n the misunderstanding and cultural crash often occur in the cross-cultural communication. So in the process of communication, it is not a complete communication while ignoring the cultural differences of nonverbal communication. A famous anthropologist E.T.Hall pointed out “Silent language expresses more information than verbal language. Because it contains much information.” According to some researchers abroad, in people’s daily life, nonverbal communication takes part over 65% in all of information exchange. And body language is an important part of nonverbal communication. Many experts have shown the importance of body language in the cross-cultural communication. “A psychologist proposed a formula: the total impact of message = 7% verbal + 38% vocal +55% facial expressions and behavior.”[1]p89 It is clear without body language we can’t finish our informational exchange. Body language, like verbal language can express emotions, exchange ideas and deliver information. So we must know the cultural differences of body language to achieve efficient communication.
2. Definition and Functions of Nonverbal Communication
2.1 Definition of Nonverbal Communication
“Nonverbal communication is a process in which communicators use the natural features of thEir bodies to deliver information and express specific meaning instinctively to the other communicator.”[2]p90 The study of nonverbal communication covers three major parts: Proxernics, Kinesics or Body Language, and Paralanguage. Proxernics refers that people keep certain space with each other when they communicate and the meaning it suggests. For example, Arabians like to keep close while Englishmen like to keep a certain distance. It is funny to see they are in conversation. Arabians will come closer and closer but Englishmen will withdraw further and further. When they finish the conversation, they are far away from the place they stood. Kinesics is also called body language, which studies the meanings of the movement of all parts of body and it includes many nonverbal behavior such as eye language, gestures, postures, facial expressions, touch and so on. We will discuss it in details later. Paralanguage refers to all kinds of sound signals made by mouth, which can express certain emotions and ideas. Paralanguage is not the phrases and sentences with clear meanings. It is to transform information by sound, such as “Ouch”. Besides this, the pitch of tone and loudness or quietness of voice also belongs to paralanguage. And some researchers believe that clothing belongs to paralanguage, too.
2.2 Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication, like verbal communication is also a part of culture and the carrier of a certain culture. The function of nonverbal communication in the whole communication can’t be overlooked. “In the daily communication, we can see people can’t communicate efficiently by verbal language alone. And nonverbal communication will express clear meanings in a certain context. And a certain nonverbal communication should be connected with verbal communication or the other nonverbal communication to provide correct information.”[3]p37 So in communicative activities, nonverbal communication also plays a great role. Of course, we should pay close attention to the functions of nonverbal communication. “In any case, when verbal communication conflicts with nonverbal communication, people are willing to accept the information nonverbal communication delivers. Because nonverbal communication sounds more natural, more instinctive and it is hard to pretend.”[4]同[1]p90 Obviously, we should make full use of nonverbal communication to achieve efficient communication. Now, we will discuss the functions of nonverbal communication.
Repetition. For example, when we tell people how to get to the nearest hospital, we are not only telling them the direction but also pointing to the direction with hands. Supplement. For instance, we greet people with a smile. Smile functions as a supplement to the pleasure of meeting people. Replacement. When we communicate with others, we will frown instead of asking directly to hint that we don’t understand and expect repetition or explanation. Emphasis. When we are talking or making a speech, we often raise our voice to stress the content. And sometimes, we say, “It is my fault” while hung down our heads. We smile and say, “Welcome”. We shout out to the people while waving our fists. All the nonverbal communication here emphasizes what we say. Adjustment. We often suggest that our talk is over by our tone, eyes, head nodding and other nonverbal communicative behaviors. For example, the manager stands up to show the end of the interview.
3. Classification of Body Language
We have discussed the importance of nonverbal communication. And we also know body language reflects a certain cultural background. On the one hand, in a certain tradition, body language is determined by its customs and traditions. Violating them will cause communicative disconnection and misunderstanding. On the other hand, the meanings of body language in a certain culture are developing and changing. With the development of technology, traffic and contact all over the world, the meanings of body language are renewing every day. In this essay, we intend to make a comparison and contrast of the similarities and differences on body language in order to avoid misunderstanding and make efficient communication.
(1) A baby can cry when it is born. It can suck its fingers when it is hungry. When we are excited, our pupils will enlarge distinctively. Our eyebrows will move rapidly when we greet. And we will frown when we are unsatisfied. We are yawning when we feel sleepy.
And acquired body language is greatly affected by social environment and accepted through common practice. It often becomes a distinctive culture. Every country, every nation, and even every region has its own historical and cultural background. So the body language people use is quite different. For example,
(2) Americans like to shrug when they have no idea about something. But Chinese don’t do the same thing. Stretching out one’s tongue means contempt in America, but in China it means surprise and respect for guests in Tibet.
We can control some body language and we can do some postures consciously. For example,
(3) If a public speaker is fiddling with a pencil or with his glasses all the time while he is talking, he is telling quite clearly that he is nervous. But some experienced speechmaker will pretend well and show confidence.
4. Cultural Differences of Body Language
Different believes are the causes of the differences of body language. According to the theories proposed by American anthologists Barnettt Pearce, Verrion Cronent, people’s behavior, the way of thinking and so on are affected by thEIr believes. And every culture has its distinctive belief system. A normal action in this culture will be abnormal in another one. A positive behavior in one culture will be negative in another. People from eastern world advocate modesty, tolerance, mutual-support and responsibility for the group. But western people admire independence, self-respect, free development, and requiring inspanidual space and so on. Next, we will go to the differences of body language from five parts.
4.1 Eye Language
As saying goes “The eyes are the window of the soul”. That is to say, we can read one’s mind through his/her eyes. Eye language can express complicated feelings and it is an important way to judge the intimacy of communicators. People from English speaking countries have more eye contact when they are in conversation. According to American tradition, communicators must gaze at each other. “But there are many rules about eye language: Whether to look at the other communicator or not; when it is the time to look at them, how long we can look at; who we can look at and who we can’t; they all imply different meanings in communication.”[6]p94 In Juliets Faster’s book “Body Language”, there is a paragraph which can explain the problem. “Two strangers sit face to face in the dinning room in a train; they can introduce themselves to each other. When they are eating, they can talk anything else. They also can avoid eye contact and do not show interest in each other. A writer described this situation in an article “They look over the menu again and again, play with knives and look at their nails. It seems that they look at them for the first time. If their eyes meet, they will turn away immediately and look out of the window.”
(4) Americans pay great attention to the time and the way of eye contact. In common conversation, they will look at each other about one minute and then they will look away. If two Americans gaze at each other, which indicate they are intimate. In North America, the children there have learned to look at the other communicator directly. If they don’t, they are regarded lack of enthusiasm or confidence. They believe the saying “Never trust a person who can’t look you in the eyes.”[7]p36
(5) If two Arabians are in conversation, they will look at each other warmly. Because they think eyes are the key of their existence. But in American eyes, they think this behavior is unsuitable or a homosexual behavior. The educated Englishmen believe direct eye contact with our communicators is gentlemanly. But Swedenians use eye language more often than Englishmen. And the French especially like to look attentively at the other communicators with admiration. Japanese often look at the other communicator’s neck when they are in conversation. They believe eye contact is impolite. And Chinese consider gazing people is an unfriendly behavior and it is a challenge. Some South American Indians used to look at different directions when they are talking. In the Middle East, it is considered extremely provocative for a woman to let a man catch her eyes, let alone, return his gaze.
(6) Another example, Americans have a trip to a village and the local people stare at them. They are annoyed and think the local people are rude. In fact, it is normal in the village. They are just curious. “American social psychologist Michael Argyle found out: People who like each other have more eye-contact than people who dislike each other.”[8]同[5]p35 In communication, looking down frequently can indicate submissiveness or embarrassment. Looking away constantly may express dissatisfaction. Females are likely to communicate with more eye contact, especially among females. But too long eye contact will cause embarrassment. Most people feel uneasy and uncomfortable under the strong staring. When people always stare at us, we will feel we are threatened or suspect their sincerity. From what is mentioned above we can conclude that different cultural background has a great influence on body language. And eye language also reflects different cultures and believes. So we need to observe and compare and contrast carefully so as to improve cultural exchange and to blend well.
4.2 Gestures
“Gesture means we communicate and express by the movement and manners of our hands and fingers.”[9]p123 “Without gestures, our world will be static and colorless. We may literally roll up our sleeves when talking about cleaning up the room and run to meet the person we are eager to see. It seems natural to clench our fist or perhaps even pound to the lectern to let every one realize the importance of our message when trying to communicate a strong feeling, which emphasize our words.”[10]p64 In our daily life, every one makes gestures, but many gestures have distinct regional and cultural features. “Don’t assume that every one in the world understands one gesture in the same way.”[11]p44 For example，
(7) Americans often touch their temples to express somebody’s cleverness. But this action means there is something wrong with one’s mind or one is stupid to Chinese. Chinese are often surprised to see Americans lay their hands on their necks when they are full. Because it is an suicide action to Chinese, who used to express fullness by patting their stomachs. And another example,
(8) In western culture, people stretch out one’s fore finger and swing it left and right, which signals to warn somebody not to do something. The phrase “cross one’s fingers” means blessing somebody’s good luck. The gesture of thumbing a ride signifies asking for a free ride in motor vehicle by stretching up one’s thumb. In America, people hold their thumbs and fore fingers into a circle and stretch up the other fingers, which means “OK” in America, but it means somebody is fired by boss in Japan. In China, holding up one’s thumb means good, and raising one’s litter finger means bad. But Japanese will hold up their little fingers to express one is their lover. In America, waving one’s hand means goodbye. But South Americans will not leave when they see this gesture, in turns; they will run towards you.
(9) People from English-speaking countries turn around their rings constantly to show nervousness or uneasiness. Now people from Taiwan and Hong Kong also have this gesture. But if people in the mainland of China act like this, they will be regarded they are showing off richness. It is clear to see the same gesture with different meanings in different cultures, and people from different cultures will express same meaning by different gestures. So it is necessary for us to know the cultural difference to avoid misunderstanding.
4.3 Postures
“Posture is a matter of how people sit, walk, stand and move.”[12]同[8]p65 What kind of posture people use also can reflect the cultural differences between east and west. “Hewes pointed out culture mostly determined what kind of postures people use and the meaning and emotion they suggested.”[13]同[7]p35
(10) According to Chinese tradition, people who are sitting have right to take charge of others: Monarch sits and officer stands; father sits and son stands; leader sits and employee stands and so on. So the younger give the old a seat to show respect. But in America and Britain, people who are in charge of others have tendency to stand. The y will make use of the hEight of space to indicate the high status. People who have high status choose to sit when they are conversing with you, which mean they want to create harmonious and equal atmosphere and lessen space. So adults will bend down when they are talking to children. “Froyd once said “ No one can really keep secret. If he does not talk and keep silent, he will talk with his fingers. In a whole, part of his body will sell him out.”[14]同[5]p36 In fact, this statement refers that people’s postures, attitude and other body language can deliver more hidden information. People may control thEIr facial expressions successfully and appear calm. But they do not realize that his nervousness and eagerness have let out from his body language. Their feet may be stamping on the floor. Madness is the emotion that may let out from our feet and legs.
(1
1) When we are quarrelling with others, our feet will be nervous and trembling unconsciously. And females will make some teasing postures with their legs. And postures can also reflect people’s attitude towards their communicators. The research indicated: males communicate with the person they don’t like, whether they are relaxed or nervous determined by whether their communicators are threatening or not. In this experiment, females will express dislike with very relaxing postures. Postures will be the clue of the internal relationship of a group. For example,
(1
2) Guests are quarrelling because of dispute; we can make out the two quarrelling parts by their postures. People who agree with them will put their legs on the other legs. And people who are against will stretch out their legs straight. And some neutral people will hold arms. Somebody suddenly changes his/her postures, which may mean he disagrees with the person who is speaking or he/she is changing his/her mind. For example,
(1
3) People from English speaking countries prefer kneeling or sitting on the ground to bending down. They think it is the posture of uncultivated people when they are surrounding the fire, and they are willing to kneel or sit on the ground. But people from the countryside of Northern China get used to this posture. In Indonesia, people often bow and put the other people’s hand on their forehead to express modesty. But Americans will not do it. American’s informalness is famous. Teachers can sit on the platform or desk when they are teaching. And the students needn’t to sit straight. But in China, people are required to have a good manner. For example,
(1
4) In interpersonal communication, good manners show great respect to the other people. For example, having an interview for job-hunting, we should behave well. “And we can conclude something from people’s posture. When we listen to people, we believe they are more energetic, confident and competent if they stand erect. On the other hand, when we see a person slouching over a lectern or standing lazily, we make a negative interpretation. We say the person is not very interested in what they are discussing.”[15]同[10]p65
4.4 Touch
Touch refers to the way people exchange information by touching one’s body. The most common touch behavior is hands shaking and hugs. Chinese belong to low-contractual cultures.
(1
5) In China, people greet with each other with head nodding, smile, hand shaking and so on. Even good friends just hold hands for a short time or hammer softly on the other friend’s shoulder. As for hand shaking, people in North America shake hands when they greet with each other. As children, they have learnt to hold other people’s hands tightly. East Asian people often shake hands slightly; because they think tight hand shaking means challenge. Nowadays, hand shaking has become a custom to show hospitality and friendliness in many countries. But the way of hand shaking is a little different. For example,
(1
6) The French will shake hands with his host when they come into and leave the host’s house. But Germans only shake hands only with their host when they come into the house. Some Africans will make a sound by fingers after hand-shaking to show freedom. And Chinese shake hands for a short time and loose and then they stand away from each other. But Chinese shake hands tightly and keep closer to express politeness and respect.
(1
7) In English speaking countries, people used to hug or kiss each other in public between males and females, which is unacceptable and only exists between lovers and couples in private in China. In America, common friends and acquaintances will avoid body touch. Even in the elevator, body touch is not allowed. Touching the other people slightly or unconsciously, people will say “Sorry”, “Very Sorry”, “Excuse me” in a hurry to express apology. Or they will be abused. In western countries, people particularly mind their private space, which often represents people’s privacy and intimacy. But Chinese pay less attention to their private space. It is crowded in China because of a large population. So Chinese have got used to it and they often show their understanding and tolerance. Though Japanese also pay less attention to private space, they have strict rules in body touching. Arabians like body touching. Whether at home or in public, they like to be together and often hug together when they meet. Even they often touch each other’s nose and smell each other, which will frighten Englishmen and Americans.
4.5 Facial Expressions
“The face has been called an ‘organ of emotion’ because we constantly read facial expressions to understand what others are feeling. The face provides vital clues to our own feelings and those of the people around us. Of all the nonverbal channels, the face is the most important broadcaster of emotions.”[17]同[10]p64
(1
9) “There was once a dumb show called “eating chicken” at the spring festival party. The actor, Wang Jinyu, performed the whole process of eating chicken by his facial expressions and gestures without saying a single word, which gained a lot of applause.”[18]p58 If he can not convey his true feeling and exaggerated postures of eating chicken, the performance would be a failure. For example,
(20) Journalists deliver information to the pubic mainly from what he interviewed from interviewees. So the interviewees’ cooperation determines the success of the report. And the reports on killing or robbery, not all the witness are willing to narrate the real situation of the scene. So experienced journalists will use facial expressions such as smile, head nodding to show they are interested so as to make the witnesses relax and feel easy and cooperate with the journalist actively and voluntantly.
(2
1) And in many cultures, smiles are signs of happiness or friendliness, like America and China. We will find out others will return a smile to the person who is smiling at them but will turn away or stop talking with the person who are pulling a long face. “When we are speaking English, it is generally good to smile at your listener from time to time, especially when he has made an interesting comment. Also nodding your head up and down to show you are really interested in it. From time to time, you can add a sound of agreement, such as “Uh huh” or even just “mmmm”, to show you are listening.”[19]同[11]p44 For example,
(2
2) When we have guests at home, we will smile to show welcome. But American Indians will cry to express welcome. Smiles will not only represent happiness and friendliness but also indicate apology and understanding. For instance, we stamped other’s feet on the bus because of a sudden brake; we will smile to the person. It means to say “Sorry”, “Very Sorry”. When colliding with a stranger, we will smile to show we have no hostility. The smile on the face of waiters or waitress means they welcome us. But sometimes, western people will feel disgusted about Chinese’s smile. For example,
(2
3) A foreigner broke a dish in a restaurant and felt embarrassed. But Chinese who were on the spot smiled at him, which made him angrier. In fact, this smile means “Never mind”. Another facial expression is stretching out one’s tongue. When Chinese realize that their behavior is unsuitable and feel embarrassed, they often stretch out their tongues and shrink their necks at the same time, especially girls and children. But Americans never do it. They think it is rude.
5. The Similarities of Body Language and Their Causes
5.1 The Similarities of Body Language
“Charles Darwin mentioned in his book ‘Emotional Expression of Human and Animals’. This book discussed whether the same expressions and postures suggested the same meaning both for human and animals.”[21]p51 And he asked people all around the world and collected their possible replies. Surprisingly, the answers were almost same, especially on facial expressions. Heading nodding often means agreement or greeting in most countries. And shaking one’s head often means disagreement or “No”. Applauding means appreciation or agreement and so on.
(2
4) If a person is hurt, he/she will cry to express painfulness. And we smile when are happy. Waving one’s hand means goodbye. Even some Chinese and English expressions and their meanings are totally same. For example, patting on the back means encouragement and appreciation. Pulling a long face indicates unhappiness and anger. Being all smile means happiness, standing with folded arms means indifference and so on.
5.2 The Causes Resulting in the Similarities of Body Language
“We can analyze the reason why different cultures have the same meaning on body language from psychology, linguistics, anthropology, culturology, semilogy, philosophy and so on. From anthropology, body language is the symbols and a tool of human communication. Human beings have the same ancestor, which determines the similarities of body language.”[22]p119 Nowadays, with the development of the world, people from different cultures communicate more and more often. We have more chance to exchange culture and economy. The expert, Mcluhan compare the world to “global village” to describe the world, which means the world becoming smaller and smaller because of more and more communication. On the one hand, people from east world have accepted the body language from west world, such as thumbing a ride, shrugging, “OK” gesture, “V” gesture and so on. On the other hand, with rapid development of East Asia and Southeast Asia, the body language from east world has a great influence on that of the west world. In the communication of east and west people, many westerners have learned Chinese customs and etiquettes.
6. The Principles of Reducing Barriers in Communication
As idiom goes “When in Rome, do as the Romans do.” It is the main principle in communication. This principle refers that communicators should respect and understand the culture of the other nations and eliminate the interference of their own cultures. According to this principle, we should know the differences of their customs, believes and their connotations of body language. For example,
(2
5) In China, people will give chrysanthemum to the patient. But French people never do this. Because they think chrysanthemum is used in funerals.
But we should pay attention to two points, when we apply this principle. On the one hand, we should not worship and imitate the whole body language blindly. On the other hand, we should not be trapped in the fixed mode of cultures. For example,
(2
6) People think Americans behave informally in any situation and Englishmen are always conservative. In fact, all communicative modes change with the differences of time, situation and contents.
The other principle indicates that we should conclude the rules by comparison and contrasts of different cultures and exclude the interferences of cultures to avoid cultural confliction. In the application of this principle, we should keep a tolerant attitude towards the differences of cultures, believes, customs and so on to avoid prejudice and superiority.
So in the communication, we can make full use of these principles, exclude fixed mode of culture and keep open and understanding attitude towards cultural differences.
7. Conclusion
We have discussed the differences and similarities on body language and principles of reducing barriers in communication above. Being a branch of the means of nonverbal communication, body language can help us solve a lot of problems we meet. The study of body language makes us understand others very well and behave in proper ways without making too many mistakes. It is difficult to master body language because of its complexity, but we can improve our communicative abilities if we try to the utmost of our efforts to learn what we should know and follow the principles mentioned above. What we should do is to remember how people from different cultures act and to keep an understanding and tolerant attitude towards the differences. Only when we make a clear understanding on body language, can we use body language of English speaking countries to make an efficient communication and avoid misunderstanding.
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